Assignment 109

 Assignment Paper 109

     This blog task is part of assignment of paper 109 : Literary Theory & Criticism & Indian Aesthetics 

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⬀ Assignment Details :

Topic: Metaphor & Meaing : I.A. Richard's Theory of Figurative Languge in the Practical criticism

 

Submitted to : SMT. Department of English , Bhavnagar 

Date of Submission : 17, April, 2025

Table of Contents :

1. Abstract 

2. Keywords

3. Introduction 

4. The Text 

       * Four kind of Meaning 

       * Figurative Language 

       * Sence & Feeling

       * Poetic Form 

       * Irrelevent Associations and Stock Responses

       * Sentimentality and Inhibition

       * Technical Presuppositions and Critical Preconceptions.   

   5. Foure Kind of meaning

       * Sense

       * Feeling

       * Tone

       * Intention

  6. Figurative language

  7. The Use of Metaphoric Language

  8. The Psychological Approach of Richards

  9. Counclusion 

  10. Refereance 

 

Abstract

This study explores I.A. Richards’ influential theory of metaphor and figurative language as articulated in his seminal work Practical Criticism. By analyzing Richards’ concepts of the tenor and vehicle, this paper investigates how metaphor functions as a central cognitive and communicative mechanism in literary interpretation. The research highlights Richards’ belief that figurative language is not merely decorative but essential to meaning-making in poetry and prose. Additionally, the work situates Richards’ ideas within the broader context of literary theory and cognitive linguistics, emphasizing his role in pioneering a psychological approach to literary criticism. The abstract aims to demonstrate how Richards’ insights remain relevant for contemporary literary studies, especially in understanding how readers derive meaning from complex texts through metaphorical thinking.

Introduction 

Metaphor has long been regarded as a cornerstone of poetic language, yet its significance reaches far beyond the bounds of poetry. Among the early pioneers to seriously engage with metaphor as a cognitive and interpretive tool was I.A. Richards, whose work in the early 20th century helped transform the field of literary criticism. In Practical Criticism (1929), Richards offered a revolutionary framework for understanding how readers interpret literature, emphasizing the centrality of figurative language particularly metaphor to this process.

Richards introduced the terms tenor and vehicle to describe the dual structure of metaphor: the tenor being the subject of the metaphor, and the vehicle the image or concept through which the tenor is understood. This analytical model shifted the understanding of metaphor from a rhetorical flourish to a psychological and philosophical process that mirrors the way human beings think and communicate.

This paper delves into Richards’ theory of figurative language as it appears in Practical Criticism, examining how metaphor operates within texts and how it shapes readers’ responses. By contextualizing Richards’ work within both literary theory and the emerging fields of semiotics and cognitive science, we aim to demonstrate the lasting relevance of his insights. His approach not only laid the groundwork for reader-response criticism but also opened new avenues for considering the role of language in human understanding.

Keywords

Here are some fitting keywords for your paper on “Metaphor & Meaning: I.A. Richards’ Theory of Figurative Language in the Practical Criticism”:

I.A. Richards , Practical Criticism , Metaphor , Figurative Language , Literary Theory , Interpretation , Language and Meaning , Poetic Analysis , Psychological Criticism , Aesthetics of Language 

The Text 

 * Four kind of Meaning

 I.A. Richards, one of the most influential figures in 20th-century literary theory, places considerable emphasis on close textual and verbal analysis in his seminal works Practical Criticism (1929), The Meaning of Meaning (co-authored with C.K. Ogden, 1923), and The Philosophy of Rhetoric (1936). Across these texts, Richards argues that the study of literature, particularly poetry, must begin with a rigorous examination of language itself, for it is through language that all literary meaning is mediated. Since language is fundamentally constructed through words, a precise and nuanced understanding of how words function becomes indispensable for any serious engagement with a work of art.

Richards proposes that words do not operate on a single plane of meaning but instead convey four distinct kinds of meaning: sense, feeling, tone, and intention. Sense refers to the literal or propositional content of a word or phrasev the information it conveys. Feeling is the emotional coloring or affective charge that accompanies the expression. Tone describes the speaker’s attitude toward both the subject and the audience, shaping how the message is delivered and received. Intention refers to the purpose or aim behind the communication what the speaker is trying to achieve through their use of language.

These four aspects of meaning are not isolated; rather, they function in a dynamic and interdependent relationship. In poetry, this interplay becomes especially pronounced, as poets deliberately manipulate these layers to evoke complex responses in the reader. For Richards, the richness of a poem lies not only in what it says but in how it says it how meaning is textured through emotional undertones, tonal shifts, and rhetorical design. The failure to attend to any one of these dimensions risks a superficial or distorted interpretation of the text.

By foregrounding the multi-dimensional nature of linguistic meaning, Richards pioneers a method of criticism that is both analytical and experiential. He encourages readers to become more self-aware in their interpretive processes, urging them to distinguish between their personal reactions and the structural features of the text. This method not only enhances our appreciation of poetry but also refines our overall capacity for critical thinking and communication. In this way, Richards’ theory of language and meaning continues to shape modern approaches to literary analysis, particularly those concerned with the relationship between language, perception, and interpretation.

* Sense

Sense refers to the literal or direct meaning conveyed by the words in an utterance. It is the informational or propositional content that forms the basis of communication. When a speaker or writer expresses something, they do so with the intention of directing the listener’s or reader’s attention to a particular idea, object, event, or issue. In this way, sense functions as a cognitive appeal it seeks to engage the intellect of the audience by presenting content for thought, reflection, or consideration. It is through sense that the speaker conveys what is being talked about in a straightforward, referential manner. This component of meaning is foundational, as it provides the substance around which other elements like emotion, tone, and intent are shaped.

 * Feeling

Feeling refers to the emotional attitude the writer holds toward the subject of their expression. In poetry, language becomes a vehicle not just for conveying information, but also for communicating emotion. Through the careful selection of words, imagery, rhythm, and sound, the poet imparts a mood or emotional quality that colors the entire piece. Feeling gives poetry its expressive power it is what allows readers to connect with a poem on a deeper, more personal level. I.A. Richards emphasizes that feeling and sense are not independent; rather, they work in tandem to shape the reader’s experience. While sense appeals to the intellect, feeling appeals to the emotions, and together they create a fuller, richer meaning. Richards notes, “The sound of a word has much to do with the feeling it evokes,” pointing to the subtle ways in which phonetic qualities influence emotional response. In this way, feeling is just as essential to poetry as traditional elements like rhyme and meter, contributing to the aesthetic and psychological impact of the work.

* Tone

Tone refers to the writer’s or speaker’s attitude toward the listener or reader. It reflects how the writer positions themselves in relation to their audience whether formal or informal, respectful or ironic, serious or playful. In literary works, particularly in poetry, tone is shaped by the choice and arrangement of words, and it subtly guides how the message is to be received. I.A. Richards emphasizes that tone is not fixed; rather, it shifts depending on the nature of the audience. A skilled writer adjusts their tone to suit the level of understanding, expectation, or emotional state of the reader. This adaptability ensures that the communication remains effective and appropriately nuanced. Tone acts as a bridge between sense and feeling, influencing how the content is perceived and how the emotional undercurrent is conveyed. In essence, it is a key component of the writer’s rhetorical strategy, helping to establish the voice, mood, and overall atmosphere of a literary piece.

* Intention

Intention refers to the underlying aim, purpose, or objective behind the speaker’s or writer’s utterance. It is the driving force that guides the use of language, shaping not only what is said but why it is said. According to I.A. Richards, a speaker may communicate either consciously with a deliberate goal or unconsciously, driven by instinct or emotion. Regardless of the level of awareness, the responsibility falls on the listener or reader to discern the speaker's intention in order to fully grasp the meaning. Without this understanding, communication breaks down, and the speaker fails to achieve their purpose.

In literary contexts, intention plays a crucial role, particularly in dramatic and semi-dramatic works, where it often governs character motivation, dialogue, and the unfolding of the plot. It is through the author's intention that key ideas are emphasized and arguments are structured. For example, in persuasive writing or argumentative discourse, intention dictates which points are highlighted, which emotions are evoked, and which rhetorical strategies are employed. Thus, intention not only shapes the content but also coordinates the interaction of sense, feeling, and tone to produce coherent and effective communication.

* Figurative Languge 

Figurative language is a powerful tool that poets use to communicate emotions and ideas in a way that resonates deeply with readers. One of the most effective forms of figurative language is the simile, which compares two unlike things using the words "like" or "as." This comparison is crucial in helping readers understand complex emotions or abstract concepts by relating them to something more familiar or tangible. In this way, similes create vivid images in the reader's mind, allowing them to experience the poem on a deeper, more emotional level.

For instance, a poet might write, "Her laughter was like a melody in the air." This simile helps readers visualize and feel the light, uplifting nature of the laughter by comparing it to something pleasant and harmonious, such as a song. The use of a simile makes the emotion of joy or happiness more relatable and immediate, as it connects an abstract feeling to a concrete image. Similarly, phrases like "His anger burned like fire" compare the intensity of anger to the destructive power of fire, allowing the reader to feel the heat and force of the emotion.

In poetry, similes do more than just provide descriptions; they enhance the emotional depth of the poem. They create connections between the reader's own experiences and the themes of the poem, allowing for a richer understanding of the feelings being expressed. The comparison created by a simile can evoke empathy, vivid imagery, or even a sense of wonder, depending on the context. This emotional depth is often what makes poetry so powerful it speaks not just to the intellect but also to the heart.

Similes are often intertwined with the poem’s rhythm and meter, creating a flow that is pleasing to the ear. Just as rhyme and meter help establish harmony and anticipation, similes contribute to the overall tone and mood of the poem. The mind, after reading a few lines of verse, begins to anticipate the emotional shifts that occur with the rhythm, and the simile serves to reinforce or heighten those emotional moments. By comparing emotions or experiences to familiar objects or sensations, similes help make the meaning of a poem more accessible, immediate, and emotionally impactful.

In this way, similes not only beautify the language of the poem but also serve as a bridge between the abstract and the concrete, allowing readers to more fully engage with the emotions and meanings the poet is trying to convey. Through their ability to make emotions tangible and relatable, similes play an essential role in the effectiveness of figurative language in poetry.

 * Irrelevent Associations and Stock Responses

Irrelevant Associations and Stock Responses are concepts that often emerge in communication, including literature and poetry. A simile, when used effectively, can help avoid irrelevant associations by making clear and meaningful comparisons that enhance understanding. However, sometimes similes or figurative language can fall into the trap of creating irrelevant associations or using overused stock responses that do not add much depth to the poem or message.

In the context of a simile, irrelevant associations might occur when the comparison drawn doesn't really enhance the meaning of the poem or resonates with the emotional tone intended. For example, a simile like "Her eyes were like the sky" could be considered vague or irrelevant if it doesn't connect to the emotional context of the poem, leaving the reader with a weak or unimpactful image. If the sky isn't being used to convey a particular feeling (like vastness, changeability, or beauty), the comparison may feel disconnected from the theme of the poem.

Stock responses are another issue in figurative language, particularly with similes, when the comparison becomes so common or clichéd that it loses its impact. For example, similes such as "His heart was as cold as ice" or "Her smile was like the sun" are often overused in literature. While they may seem to make sense at first glance, they have become predictable and don’t provide fresh insight or new imagery. The repeated use of such familiar comparisons can lead to a loss of originality and emotional depth, making the poem feel formulaic or uninspired.

In sum, while similes are valuable for making vivid and emotionally resonant comparisons, they must be used thoughtfully to avoid irrelevant associations and avoid slipping into stock responses. Poets should strive to create original and meaningful connections that enhance the theme and emotional depth of their work, rather than relying on tired or vague imagery that doesn't fully contribute to the poem’s impact.

  * Technical Presuppositions and Critical Preconceptions. 

Technical presuppositions refer to the underlying assumptions about how language, form, and structure should function in a poem. When using similes, poets often rely on these presuppositions to create meaning or to adhere to certain patterns in their work. These might include expectations about rhyme, meter, and rhythm, or assumptions about how similes should be used to enhance the poem’s themes.

For example, in traditional poetry, similes often follow a certain formula or patternn such as comparing human emotions to natural or familiar phenomena (e.g., "Her sadness was like a storm" or "His anger was like wildfire"). These kinds of comparisons can be expected due to the presupposition that similes serve to create clear, vivid images for the reader. While this approach is effective for clarity, it can sometimes limit the creativity and originality of the simile if the poet relies too heavily on conventional or predictable comparisons.

In contemporary poetry, technical presuppositions might shift as poets experiment with form and language, using similes in ways that challenge traditional expectations. For instance, a poet might use a disruptive or surprising simile "Her smile was like a broken compass" to evoke a feeling of confusion or lost direction. This type of comparison might challenge the reader’s assumptions about how similes should function, making them reconsider the meaning of the poem in a new light.

The Use of Metaphoric Language

The use of metaphorical language plays a significant role in communication, especially in poetry, where it can convey meanings that go beyond the literal. According to Richards, a metaphor is essentially "a shift, a carrying over of a word from its normal use to a new use," allowing a writer to express complex ideas, feelings, and tones more vividly. This shift in meaning can be categorized into two main types of metaphors: sense-metaphors and emotive-metaphors.

In a sense-metaphor, the shift occurs due to the similarity between the original object and the new object. For example, saying "The classroom was a zoo" draws on the likeness between a chaotic, noisy classroom and the wild, unruly environment of a zoo. Here, the metaphor is based on a clear, physical resemblance between the two, making it a sense-metaphor.

On the other hand, an emotive-metaphor emerges from the similarity between feelings or situations. This type of metaphor focuses more on the emotional or psychological connections rather than physical resemblances. For example, when someone says, "His heart was a stone," the shift occurs not because a heart literally resembles a stone, but because the metaphor suggests a feeling of coldness or emotional numbness, connecting the emotional state to the qualities of a stone.

Metaphors, through their nuanced shifts in meaning, allow poets to convey more than what can be directly expressed with words. The meaning of a metaphor arises from a complex intersection of sense, tone, feeling, and intention. As Richards points out, "A metaphor is a point at which many different influences may cross or unite," highlighting the richness and depth a metaphor can bring to poetry. The metaphorical meaning combines various elements to create an impression that could otherwise be difficult to communicate directly.

However, metaphors also come with risks. Richards warns that metaphors can be treacherous for careless readers, especially in poetry, where they are used to evoke multiple layers of meaning. They can be misunderstood or fail to make an impact if not carefully considered. Yet, when used effectively by a skilled poet, metaphors have a "quasi-magical sway," unlocking deeper meanings and creating emotional resonance in the poem.

In this sense, metaphors enable poets to express a wide range of emotions and ideas indirectly, blending sense, feeling, tone, and intention to create powerful, multifaceted expressions. This allows for a richness in poetry that would be impossible to achieve through literal language alone.

 Counclusion 

I.A. Richards' theory of figurative language, especially his insights into metaphors, plays a critical role in the practice of Practical Criticism. Richards emphasizes that metaphors are not merely decorative or ornamental; they are essential to the way language conveys meaning and emotion in poetry. As he asserts, "A metaphor is a shift, a carrying over of a word from its normal use to a new use", allowing poets to compress complex layers of meaning into a single, evocative image.

In his framework, Richards distinguishes between sense-metaphors and emotive-metaphors. Sense-metaphors create meaning by drawing a direct comparison between the physical qualities of objects, while emotive-metaphors rely on emotional resonance and the connection between feelings and the situations represented. These two types of metaphors contribute to a poem's depth, making it possible to convey more than what could be expressed with literal language alone.

Richards' theory also underscores the indirect nature of meaning in metaphors. Rather than straightforwardly describing reality, metaphors suggest multiple layers of meaning by linking seemingly unrelated concepts. This capacity to unite sense, feeling, tone, and intention within a single metaphor is what makes metaphorical language so powerful. It opens up multiple interpretations and invites the reader to engage deeply with the text.

However, Richards also cautions about the dangers of metaphors, especially in prose, where carelessness can lead to confusion. In poetry, metaphors' "quasi-magical sway" allows for a level of emotional and intellectual engagement that ordinary language cannot achieve. When employed skillfully, metaphors can transform a poem into a rich, multi-dimensional experience that resonates with the reader on an emotional and cognitive level.

In Practical Criticism, Richards' emphasis on metaphors highlights the importance of recognizing the interplay between sense and emotion in literature. Critics must look beyond the literal meaning of words to understand how metaphorical language shapes the deeper meanings of a text. Through this approach, Richards advocates for a more nuanced and attentive reading of poetry, one that takes into account the complexity and richness of figurative language and its impact on meaning. In conclusion, Richards' theory of metaphor and meaning in figurative language invites readers and critics alike to explore the hidden layers of poetry, appreciating how metaphors serve as vehicles for conveying both the intellectual and emotional essence of a poem.

Refereance 

(PDF) I.A. Richards - Figurative Language - Practical Criticism

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